History Department Writing Site

THE HISTORY DEPARTMENT

WRITING SITE

by Sarah Covington, with Arleen Graham

Special thanks to Professor Joe O'Brien and Edward Hanlon

Contents

1. History 231 and 232: Specific Demands

2. History and the CUNY Proficiency Exam

3. Strategies in Excelling at History

How to take notes in class

Keeping a journal

Note cards

4. How to Write:

a journal

a research paper

a summary

an essay (by Arleen Graham)

an essay exam

a book review/ annotated bibliography

5. Step-by-step Guide to Writing Papers

Researching the paper

Creating an outline

Drafting the paper

6. Reading and Researching Sources

7. Citing and Documenting Sources

8. Analysis and Argumentation in Writing

9. Proper Bibliography Format

10. Spelling, Grammar, and Style Points

11. A Note on Plagiarism

12. Checklist:

After you've completed the paper, and before you hand it in

13. John Jay Campus Resources

14. Writing Sites on the Web

15. History Internet Sites

1. History 231 and 232

In writing history, you do not simply throw out facts about what happened and when; instead, you must know how to take those facts and interpret them in a clear and persuasive way. The discipline of history allows you to deepen your understanding of the world by placing it within a larger context that includes the past; it also forces you to read and think critically, to ask questions, to argue, and to understand the causes behind why things occurred--all of which are skills that apply to every area of study and life.
John Jay College requires all history classes to incorporate writing into their assignments, so you should expect to use and develop this skill extensively in the two survey courses that constitute History 231 and 232. Apart from that requirement, writing will also help you as a tool in processing the overwhelming number of issues you will need to learn, allowing you to succeed in your classes and in your temporary apprenticeship as historians. History thus requires the careful analysis of evidence and fact; but it also calls on you to write, and to write well, to convey the richness and complexity, the whys and the hows, of past times.

2. History and the CUNY Proficiency Exam

(Note: go to http://web.jjay.cuny.edu/~writing/cuny_proficiency_exam for more on this exam and for exam preparation workshops see also http://web.jjay.cuny.edu/~jobrien/general/ob97.html for a good overview)
All students who registered as first-time freshmen in the fall of 1999 and after will be required to take this exam in order to proceed on to the upper division. The exam consists of two sections, Task I and Task II, which require you to read a long passage and then write about it, demonstrating the following:

understanding of the material

connections between points in the reading

references to other ideas and your own perspectives

effective interpretation skills

good style and grammar

a tight structure and prose style

Here, by the way, is what the exam evaluators do not want to see:

partial or inadequate understanding of the reading (or no mention of the reading at all)

no connection between the reading and your own perspective and experience

a loose, unfocussed style

superficial statements

vague conclusions

unclear and confusing writing

errors in grammar and style

How can history classes help you with the proficiency exam? For one thing, history is a reading-intensive activity that demands a certain amount of interpretation, thought, and feedback on your part. In addition, you will never enjoy history unless you personally and actively engage with it on a multitude of levels, and make connections between past events, developments, and larger issues and meanings. If you pursue history with diligence (and follow some of the suggestions below), you will do well on the proficiency exam, which also calls for the skills you need for your history courses: critical thinking, understanding, personal engagement, and finally the ability to make connections and express your thoughts with fluency.

3. Strategies in Excelling at History

(a) How to take notes in class

1. Read the textbook or other background sources beforehand, so you won't be lost during the lecture

2. Note especially the points which the professor emphasizes--they'll probably appear in some form on the exam.

3. Always put a date and a subject heading on your notes.

4. If possible, put your notes in rough outline form, following the organization of the lecture. Underline or highlight important points.

Sample excerpt:

Date: October, 2, 2000
Lecture: The Middle Ages/the Crusades

Beginnings--

1. Speech of Pope Urban II, 1095

importance, power of popes in mid ages

reasons given --

--the "infidel" Moslems in Jerusalem

Jerusalem as "capital of the world"

background--Moslems vs Christians, hostility, encroachment

--helping Christian brothers in the east

Byzantine empire (prof a little unclear; look in textbook)

--crusading as act of penance/ "remission of sins"

2. Reaction of people (everyone basically enthusiastic)

other reasons to go on crusade

--riches and plunder in the east

--harnessing the violence of the age toward Christian purposes

--the problem of younger brothers of kings, etc--good way to get rid of

them (send them east)

--knights, nobles, peasants; England, France, etc.

5. Reread your notes later, correcting or looking up any misspellings, highlighting key points, and maybe even writing the outline. Fill out your class notes with textbook notes.

(b) Keeping a journal

(note: http://writesite.cuny.edu/projects/tasks/journals/index.html--an excellent site for discussions of the journal)

Keeping a journal, whether the professor requires it or not, is an excellent way to comprehend material as you proceed through the course. A good way to keep a journal is as follows:

Example:

Text Summary Questions/Comments

After each class, summarize the main points of the lecture or discussion and write down your immediate comments and questions. Try to write in complete sentences and to point out any comments you may have. Also, try to connect these issues with other matters--events in the news, in your own life or your other studies at John Jay.

(c) Note Cards

On 3 X 5 cards, jot down immediately after class your impressions of the lecture and topic, and any questions, ideas or comments you may have, much as you would in the second column of a journal (see above). Write in complete sentences, which will hone your writing skills, and save the cards--they provide an extremely effective record of continuity and will help you in your exams and papers.

(d) Group Study and Writing

Studying with a partner or group is a highly effective way to process and evaluate the material you cover in a history class, especially before a quiz, midterm, or final. By sharing notes, for example, you pick up any possible gaps in your note-taking, and reinforce each other's knowledge in a mutually beneficial way.

It is also recommended that you try to find a fellow student who can read over and comment upon rough drafts of your papers, in return for your own offer to do the same for him or her. This does not mean having another student re-write your paper, but another pair of eyes is always an excellent way to pick up any errors or mistakes you might have overlooked. Equally good is reading your paper out loud to another student (and vice versa), which can also add some critical distance in evaluating the flow and fluency of your words, arguments, and ideas.

4. How to Write...

(a) Journals

See above (3B).

(b) Research Papers:

1. Give yourself plenty of time to write the assignment; ideally you should think about the paper immediately after you've received the assignment.

2. Read the assignment carefully and think about the subject you will write about.

Write down the time period, the place, and the issues you will have to explore;

Pay attention to what is being asked of you. Do you have to compare, contrast, explain, discuss, or comment on a subject?

Write down any issues that are unclear to you

3. Go to the library and gather together and organize your sources--textbooks, secondary sources, internet sources, and most of all primary sources; you may start with basic sources (for encyclopedias, www.britannica.com, for example), but you should use them only as starting-off points. Take notes and jot down quotes, and be sure to cite where those sources are coming from, for your bibliography.

4. Outline your paper: introduction, body, and conclusion, in an organizational blueprint.

5. Basic points to focus on:

what happened

why did it happen

how did it happen

6. Construct an argument or thesis, by going deeper into the subject and asking yourself questions. Don't worry about "right" or "wrong" answers; what matters is how able you are in making an argument.

7. Make sure you cite all your quotations and sources (see below)

8. Make sure your bibliography follows the correct APA format

9. Revise and proofread, at least two or three times, for grammatical and spelling errors

(c) Summaries:

1. Read over the assigned work, underlining or taking a few notes from key sections

2. Condense what you have read --including the author's main points and arguments--in your own words, to show that you have understood the material.

(d) The Essay

The following worksheets were created by writing fellow Arleen Graham, for Professor Joe O'Brien's History 232 course.

You can cut-and-paste the worksheet below into Microsoft Word and print it out.

Organizing Your Essay

Before beginning your writing assignment, use this interactive checklist by filling in the answers to the following questions:

I. Understanding Your Assignment:

What have you been asked to write (answer a question in compare/contrast essay form, opinion paper, term paper, a narrative, journal entry, speech, letter, newspaper article)?

What question(s) must I answer in order to fulfill the assignment?

Have I been asked to limit my answer to a specific time period (e.g. Bismarck after 1870)

What terms are used that demand a certain task of you? ( read and "take notes," "analyze," "compare," "explore", "narrate," "comment on" etc.)

What do I need to read or consult on the web site in order to answer the question effectively? (text pages, outside primary source documents, class notes etc.) Am I supposed to use only those documents?

Which areas of in my preparation are still unclear to me ( text passages, terms, etc.)?

By asking this question, my professor is testing to see if I understand certain concepts. What are the most important things my professor needs to know that I understand? (the benefits resulting from the Industrial Revolution, factors leading up to World War II, etc.)

II. Drafting Your Essay:

I. Introduction: Give a brief background to the individual and/or event; for example, the personality, status or position of "major players" or circumstances preceding or leading to a particular event.

What are the main points or what is the argument (thesis) that I want to make in this paper in order to answer the question effectively?

II. Development: This part of the answer will require narrative (details and descriptions of events) as well as explanation (the reason and purpose behind events, i.e., why things happened as they did). Be sure to separate different topics with paragraphs that fully explore that topic. Also, begin with topic sentences that clearly introduce the subject of the paragraph or serve as good transitional sentences that will impart elegance to your writing.

2. Are any of these points too broad or contradictory? ("The Industrial Revolution was both good and bad.")

3. Can I refine or be more specific with my points?

4. Can I support my main points and/or ideas with citations from readings or web documents?

(e) Essay Exams (In-Class)

A. Preparation

1. Prepare for the exam by attending class regularly, taking notes and doing the reading

2. Begin studying one week before

3. If you know the question beforehand, create a rough outline of the essay

4. Make study sheets and mock outlines containing illustrations, examples, and details

B. At the exam itself

1. Read the questions carefully, making sure to note key instructional words such as "compare," "contrast," "analyze," and so on.

2. Answer the question you know the best (if there are choices)

3. Scribble a quick outline in the margins, or key terms and points that immediately come to mind.

4. Be as detailed as you can (but don't include irrelevant or extraneous details)

5. Keep your eye on the clock and time yourself (for example, in a one-hour exam give yourself 1/2 hour to do each of two essays). Try to leave some time at the end so you can read and edit what you've written, and check spelling and grammatical errors

(f) Book Reviews/ Annotated Bibliographies:

1. Summarize the book and its subjects, themes and arguments; also, describe the kind of sources used by the author

2. Examine any biases or omissions you may discern in the book

3. Compare the book, if necessary, to other books on the subject

4. Bring in your own opinion or evaluation

Annotated bibliographies are bibliographies with descriptions or comments appended to each entry. The purpose here is to describe a given book related to the topic you're delving into, explaining its importance, value, or relevance. Entries can vary in length, but the more pertinent and significant books receive more words and attention.

Example of a (short) annotated bibliography entry:

Graham-Dixon, Andrew (1999). Renaissance. Berkeley: University of California Press.
This beautifully illustrated work of Renaissance art history challenges many of the myths and misconceptions surrounding the Renaissance by arguing that "the Renaissance represented a culmination rather than a complete rejection of...earlier [medieval and Byzantine] influences." Starting in the Middle Ages, Graham-Dixon moves through key moments in the development of the Renaissance focusing on major artists and architects of the time, but also outlines social and historical contexts in which artists were working.

5. Step-by-Step Guide to Writing Papers

I. Read the assignment carefully

II. Write down ideas for a topic, or areas to pursue. Be sure to have your choice approved by the professor, or check to see if the topic is assigned.

III. Research information (note: the internet can be a useful research tool, but it is better that you also work from books).

Some tips:

Work from the general to the specific.
Find background information first, then use more specific and recent sources.
Record what you find (in a notebook or index cards) and where you found it. Be careful to put in quotes where applicable. Write out a complete citation for each source you find; you may need it again later.
Go to the John Jay Library, for a set of research guides.
"The Seven Steps of the Research Process" is a basic web site guide from the librarians at Cornell University: http://www.library.cornell.edu/okuref/research/skill1.htm

IV. Make an outline before you draft your paper.

A. Introduction/ Opening Paragraph

Provide basic information: who, what, where, when, why.

B. Body of Paper

Plan to begin each paragraph with a topic sentence, which serves as the focal point of your paragraph and asserts a major point that will propel the paper forward.

The following is taken from the Dartmouth College writing site (http://www.dartmouth.edu/~compose/student/ac_paper/write.html):

Do I have enough evidence to support this paragraph's idea?

Do I have too much evidence? (In other words, will the reader be lost in a morass of details, unable to see the argument as a whole?)

Does this evidence clearly support the assertion I am making in this paragraph, or am I stretching it?

If I am stretching it, what can I do to persuade the reader that this stretch is worth making?

Am I repeating myself in this paragraph?

Have I defined all of the paragraph's important terms?

Can I say, in a nutshell, what the purpose of this paragraph is?

Has the paragraph fulfilled that purpose?

C. Conclusion

Summarize but don't be repetitive or redundant; a good conclusion will not only capture the essence of your argument but also open the topic up to a larger perspective.

V. Draft the Paper

Some tips (from the CUNY write site):

If you have a main idea, or thesis, you might want to use it as your first sentence for now, or write it at the top of your first page.
If you have written a pre-draft outline, keep it nearby as you write, or copy it over with enough space between each section to write your draft in.
If you are writing a first draft on paper, skip every other line or two. If you are writing with a word processor, set the line spacing to double or triple. The extra space will allow you to see your work more clearly and give you room to make changes and additions.
Don't worry about writing an introduction or a conclusion at first, unless you have a great idea and want to get it down before you forget it. You will have a better idea of how to introduce and conclude your project when you know in more detail what you are saying.
Try to work fairly quickly. Don't worry about grammar, spelling, or punctuation. You will edit later. For now, concentrate on shaping your ideas.

VI. Rewrite and put the paper through drafts, checking spelling, grammar, idea clarity; see below for checklist

Check your draft for revision. Have you:

Read the paper aloud to catch any grammatical errors?
Used a spell check and a grammar check?
Used a dictionary or thesaurus to check the meaning of certain words?
Used the past tense throughout?
Answered the specific questions(s) asked of you?
Defined terms properly?
Been specific and detailed, with examples to back up points?
Developed each paragraph to support the points made and carry the paper along?
Cited and attributed sources properly?
Avoided making broad and vague statements and judgments?

VII. Write the bibliography (see below)

6. Research and Reading Sources

The discipline of history is based primarily on the evidence of written sources, which must be properly attributed and documented. Historical sources themselves are divided into two categories:

Primary Sources: documents which are produced by the people who are directly involved with or close to the historical subject as it occurred at the time. These can vary from diaries or newspaper accounts (from the time) to official documents, law codes, religious texts or literary works. For example, the Declaration of Independence is a primary document, as are the Federalist Papers; a 19th-century newspaper account of Jack the Ripper would also constitute a primary source, as would a letter written by the murderer himself. See below, Internet Resources: History web sites, for some excellent sites which offer primary sources.

Secondary Sources: books (including textbooks), articles, or encyclopedia entries which describe and interpret the primary source, well after the fact. You should consult these sources for background information and research, but not rely fully on them. For example, it is excellent to read and quote from a medieval war chronicle written in the twelfth century, to get a sense of the period and without the mediation of modern historians; at the same time, not all primary sources--especially medieval war chronicles--are reliable, which means that you must balance your research out with secondary reading.

The following are questions that can be asked of primary (and secondary) sources:

1. When and where was the (primary/secondary) source written?

2. Who is the author(s)?

3. What is the agenda or purpose of the author?

4. Why was the text even written?

5. Who was the audience for the text?

6. Do you think the author is reliable and credible?

7. How do the values expressed in the source differ from those of our own age?

8. Is there anything unspoken in the text (in other words, does the author seem to leave some things out intentionally?)

9. Do you agree or disagree with what the author is saying? Why?

You may also create a chart in approaching sources:

(The Author's) Perspective My Perspective

7. Attributing and Documenting Sources

In any history paper, you must cite the sources that you quote, paraphrase, or generally borrow from; in fact, citing sources only adds to the strength of your paper, indicating the depth of your research and engagement with the material. The following are cases where you need to use documentation or citation:
When to cite sources:
1. Direct, verbatim quotes

Direct quotes can be rich additions to your paper, especially if they are well-written or powerful in their impact, or if they serve to advance your topic and argument. Here are some suggestions in using quotes:

- Keep them relatively brief; you don't want your paper to be overwhelmed by another's words, even if those words are properly attributed.

- Use them only if they add in some significant way to your paper. Primary sources, for example, are always good to quote, but with secondary sources you may want to limit usage only to that which is memorable, well written, or effective.

2. Paraphrases or summaries; the ideas of others

See #3

3. Ideas or information which may be unfamiliar.

Numbers 2 and 3 can be a little tricky; for example, you do not need to cite facts of common knowledge, but if they are directly paraphrased from another work, you must cite it. Theories or more uncommon pieces of information should also have a citation. If you have any doubt about whether you should cite or not, you should cite.

4. Sources that contribute in a supplementary way to your topic or argument.

5. Sources that include further information on your subject, such as related works or works with differing arguments.

Format

You must ask your instructor about the kind of citation format he or she requires, since formats can vary. John Jay College tends to follow the APA style of citation (see below), though history professors may favor footnotes instead. The following are ways in which you can cite a source:

1. APA Style

When using a direct quote, write the author and date in parentheses, following the quote: (Author's last name, page number)

Example: According to Christopher Haigh, "Henry VIII died a Catholic, though rather a bad Catholic" (Haigh, 1984, 207).

(Note: you will write out the book in full at the end of the paper, in your "References," or bibliography, section).

If you don't directly quote, but you mention the author's name, follow the name with a date (of the book's publication) in parentheses.

Example: Susan Reynolds (1994) would like to dispel with the idea of feudalism altogether.

If you do not quote from the authors or mention their names in the sentence, and if you still borrow their arguments or ideas, cite their names and the dates of their works in parentheses at the end.

Example: Atheism was unknown to Europe in the sixteenth century (Febvre, 1982).

2. Footnotes/Endnotes

Despite increasing use of parenthetical citations, historians still tend to favor footnotes, which don't intrude on the text as much and are more conducive to lengthy citations or asides. For a footnote, place a superscripted number after a sentence or phrase, and after all punctuation marks except dashes, follow in the rest of the text with consecutive numbers (not beginning the next page's footnotes with "1" again). Do not use asterisks or other symbols in place of numbers.

Footnotes are notes found at the bottom of each page of your paper; endnotes are notes--just like footnotes--though they are located at the end of your paper.

An important note: the format of citations in footnotes differ from bibliographic citations, and accord with the following format:

Author (first name, last name), Title of book (parentheses here--place of publication, date), page number.

Example:

According to John Doe, "Crime declined drastically in the nineteenth century"¹

1John Doe, Crime and Violence in the Nineteenth Century (New York, 1988), 45.

If your next footnote is from the same author, don't repeat the whole citation but instead write "Ibid" and page number. For example, Ibid., 67.

8. Analysis and Argumentation in Writing

The world of the past is always subject to disputes and differing interpretations; while facts themselves may be set in objective stone, the meaning of those facts--or their larger context--is always fluid and shifting according to one's own perspectives and points of view. Many of the papers you write may therefore ask that you make a leap beyond simply recounting events and that you enter the more sophisticated territory of arguing about them. While this can be difficult if you are new to certain histories, it also makes the practice of history more engaging and interesting, and personally meaningful to you.
For example, the issue of slavery in the American south would seem to be clear: it was bad, of course, and oppressive for African Americans. But in the last forty years a debate has existed between some historians who believe that slaves were universally mistreated, violated, and overwhelmingly abused by their owners, and others who argue that a form of benign "paternalism" existed, where plantation owners protected their slaves and even displayed acts of kindness in return for the slaves' loyalty; in addition, according to these historians, slave life involved close family relationships and other supportive structures that allowed them to preserve a certain dignity in the face of their oppression. Another dispute concerns whether slaves were passive recipients of oppression, or whether they could actively resist authority, "negotiating" with it, battling it in various ways, or subverting it to their own purposes.

How do you argue in a history paper? As the above example shows, you must read into the nuances of particular historical developments, weigh the opposing or established views, read the sources closely and critically, think the issues through, and then make a stand. In other words, you act like a good prosecuting attorney, making your case before an issue that you have put on trial. What was the largest factor that accounted for the decline of Rome? Why were the Spaniards able to conquer America? Was the rise of Hitler inevitable? Each of these questions demand that you formulate a theory and a thesis; but you must also know how to ask the questions in the first place.

The following points should therefore be addressed as you embark upon a thesis (or argument-oriented) paper:

What is the question I want to ask (and answer?)

What am I trying to say exactly?

What are the opposing or alternative viewpoints on the issue?

How can I order my arguments to make the most effective case?

What is the evidence I have to back up my claim?

How can I present my case with the most clarity and force?

9. Bibliography Formats

Note: The APA style is John Jay College's "official" style. For more on bibliographies, APA-style, go to http://webster.commnet.edu/apa/apa_index.html

Single-author book:

Alverez, A. (1970). The Savage God: A Study of Suicide. New York: Random House.

More than one author:

Hesen, J., Carpenter, K., Moriber, H., & Milsop, A. (1983). Computers in the Business World. Hartford, CT: Capital Press.

An anthology or edited volume:

Schmoe, Joseph (Ed.). (1987). The History of It All: Historians on History. Chicago: Goingbroke Press.

An article from a journal:

(Note: Do not use the abbreviations "p." or "pp." )

Maddux, K. (1997, March). "True Stories of the Internet Patrol." NetGuide Magazine, 88-92.

Online article

"Monetary Regulations of the Carolingians, 750-817." Retrieved November 18, 2000 from the World Wide Web: http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/750caroling-money.html.

10. Spelling, Grammar, and Style

a. Spelling

Good spelling is essential, and you should have a dictionary, thesaurus, or computer spell-check handy. It just doesn't look good when the reader is going along, reading your work, when suddenly a misspelled word appears; it upsets the flow, and suggests a careless attitude to your work.

b. Commonly misused words:

There: "I'm moving over there now," or "There was a time in history..."

not: "The Egyptians and there pharaohs..."

Their: "Christianity is their religion;" "Their relatives are coming to stay."

not: "I'm going over their now."

Its: "Rome was proud of its army," or "Its way of life is good."

not: "Its the time of my life."

It's: "It's like this," or "It's a bad thing they were the way they were."

(it is) not: "Greece and it's goddesses."

c. Sentence Fragments, or incomplete sentences

The following questions will help you identify and correct sentence fragments:

Does it have a verb?

Does it have a subject?

Can the phrase make sense standing alone (is it a dependent clause or phrase)?

d. Correct Use of Tenses

In general refer to actions people did in the past in the past tense (examples: "Napoleon won the Battle of Austerlitz", and "Voltaire wrote Candide"). Refer to quotations from authors in the present tense, even if the author you are referring to is a historical person (examples: "E.P. Thompson [a modern writer] says that the English working class evolved only in the 19th century," and also "Voltaire [an 18th Century author] suggests the Church of his time was corrupt.") In the last case note that you use the present tense for what Voltaire says/writes/suggests but the past tense for his description of a state of affairs in the past.

e. Use of Apostrophes

Apostrophes are not used in the plurals of words (example: "telephones." not "telephone's.") Apostrophes are used to indicate possession of one thing by another (example "the man's hat.") If the word that possesses is already plural the apostrophe goes after the "s" that was added to make the word plural (for instance, "The Students' Association" means the association belonging to many students, but "the student's association" would mean some association pertaining to one particular student.)

f. Its and It's

"Its" = indication of possession, like "his" or "her."

e.g. "the book's cover" = "its cover."

"It's"= contraction for "it is."

g. Capitalization

Capitalize:

The first word in a sentence.

Proper nouns (i.e. names).

Words such as "King," "President," only when referring to a particular person.

Words in titles, but not non-initial conjunctions, prepositions, or articles.

h. Conditional Verbs I

"He would have been elected," not "He would of been elected."

"She could have done it," not "She could of done it."

i. Conditional Verbs II

It has been very common to use phrases such as "If he would have helped her, she would now be safe," but this is grammatical nonsense and does not do what it intends, which is to make a conditional statement about the past. Literally the phrase as it stands means "If he had wanted to help her, she would now be safe." The phrase should be "If he had helped her, she would now be safe."

j. Split Infinitives

The infinitive of a verb is that part which expresses the meaning alone, for example, "to go," "to sing," "to be." In English, the infinitive is marked by the word "to," but in most other languages the infinitive is just one word, for instance aller, penser (French), gehen, kaufen (German), cantar, amar (Spanish). For this reason, it has long been considered bad style in English to "split infinitives" with adverbs. Instead of writing "to quickly go," or "to finally sing," you should write "to go quickly," or "finally to sing."

k. Use of First Person Pronouns

When writing formal papers only use "I" and "me" when it becomes confusing to avoid them. A term paper is not meant to "sound" like a letter to a friend or a diary entry.

l. "Feel" and "Believe"

These words are massively overused by students. Your feelings are not relevant to a paper, it is your thoughts that count. When writing about historical figures, you only know what they "felt" if they left diaries or told someone else their feelings. Unless you can cite such information, do not state that a historical figure "felt" something. Also do not use "felt" when you mean "thought." These comments apply to "believe" in a less stringent manner.

m. "Being that"

"Being that he was King of France, ...." is better stated "Since he was..,." or "Because he was...," or "When he was..."

n. Words to Avoid

"Incredible," "Unbelievable," "Literally," "People," "They." Always check that these words really mean something when you use them.

o. Passive Constructions

It is bad style to use passive constructions, or more concretely, passive constructions lead to bad style.

Here are some examples:-

"The King was lynched."
"The White House had been burned down."

All these sentences would be stronger and more informative if the person doing the lynching/burning/discovering was put in the picture.

"The Parisian mob lynched the King."
"The British burned down the White House."

The above taken from http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/core9/phalsall/ , author: Paul Halsall

11. A Note on Plagiarism and Paraphrasing

     Plagiarism, according to the department of Academic Affairs at John Jay College, is the presentation of words,facts, or ideas belonging to another source without proper acknowledgment. In other words, plagiarism is theft, or passing off someone else's words as your own, and as such will earn you a failing grade and possibly more serious consequences at the school. Whether it's conscious or not, stealing another writer's words is not only insulting to the professor, but it also reflects a lack of learning on your part, and is very vulnerable to being found out.
     Everything, even the most impersonal of encyclopedia entries, has an author, and if you're going to incorporate a phrase, a sentence, or a paragraph, you must put it in quotations. Although the conventions of documentation vary, you can follow your quote either with a footnote or a parenthetical reference. See the bibliography format above for proper citation and attribution.

     Paraphrasing is not the same as outright plagiarism, though simply restating another writer's ideas or rewording his or her sentence structures is also another form of theft. Like direct quotations, paraphrases must be credited to their sources; to fail to do so constitutes an indirect plagiarism. According to the University of Richmond's Writer's Web (http://www.richmond.edu/~writing/wweb.html), "When you paraphrase material, put it in your own words and use your own sentence structure. Don't allow the wording to resemble the original, even if you cite the source. Otherwise, you're plagiarizing the author's words without letting the reader know that the words aren't your own."

12. Checklist: After You've completed the paper, before you hand it in, by Arleen Graham

You can cut-and-paste the Helpsheets below into Microsoft Word and print it out.

Professor J. O’Brien & Arleen P. Graham, Writing Fellow
Helpsheet # 1 – Organizing Your Essay

Before beginning your writing assignment, read the assignment carefully. It may be helpful to take notes as you read using the two column journal entry system . Then use this interactive checklist to help you focus, organize and develop your essay. Fill in the answers to the following questions, based on the wording of the assignment and/or your reading(s). This worksheet should then be attached to your writing assigment and submitted with it.

Understanding Your Assignment:

What have you been asked to write? (a narrative, an opinion paper, a compare/contrast essay, a term paper, a newspaper article, a speech, a letter, a journal entry)

What question(s) must I answer in order to fulfill the assignment? (Be sure to list all of the various aspects of the question that need to be considered. (e.g. "describe the territory … cite the factors …assess the outcome")

Have I been asked to limit my answer to a specific time period or event? (e.g. Bismarck after 1870 or the Franco-Prussian War)

D. What terms are used that demand a certain task of you? ("read and take notes," "explain," "describe," "analyze," "compare," "narrate," "comment on" "assess" etc.)

What do I need to read or consult on the web site in order to answer the question effectively? (text pages, outside primary source documents or recommended readings, class notes, etc.) Am I supposed to use only those documents?

Which areas of my preparation are still unclear to me (text passages, terms, etc.)?

Through this assignment, my professor is testing to see if I understand certain concepts or events. What are the most important things my professor needs to know that I understand? (e.g. the social transformation resulting from the Industrial Revolution, factors leading up to World War II, etc.)

Helpsheet #2 - Writing Your Essay

Now that you’ve done the necessary preparation (completed Helpsheet #1), the main task arises—gathering your thoughts together in order to compose a well written and, as far as possible, error-free essay. In general your essay will have: A) and introductory section that should give the necessary background for the historical events you will be narrating and assessing; B) a development section that offers a full narrative, stage by stage, of the historical events suggested by the question asked and C) a concluding section that notes the historical significance and/or consequences of the events described. Each of these three sections are developed below through the use of these self-help questions. Answer each with a brief phrase or significant word rather a "yes" or "no" as it applies to the question at hand after completing a first draft of your paper.

A. Introduction:

Have I stated the topic that will be discussed?______

What is it?__________________________________________________________________

Have I mentioned the name(s) of people central to the discussion?______________________

Have I defined any terms or definitions that will be used? . (e.g. Bismarck introduced the Kulturkampf, or battle for modern civilization…) _____________________________

Have I stated the time period, if necessary, which limits my discussion?__________________

Have I stated why this is an important historical issue?________________________________

Have I avoided using a dictionary definition to begin the introduction?

Have I avoided making too general or broad, panoramic statements?

Have I been too personal in making introductory statements, e.g. "My contention is …"

Have I gone into too much detail?

B. Body of the Paper:

Have I developed each paragraph around a major point that addresses the question and provided the evidence that will support or disprove the introductory statement? Can I list each point that addresses the component parts of the question in a simple sentence?

Have I avoided these common mistakes:

Making hasty, broad generalizations?________

Making false analogies?____________

Over simplified the answer to the posed question?_____________

Relied too much on direct quotes from the text or other sources __________

If I have used a direct quote, have I credited the source?_________________

Have I supported the main points with citations from readings or web sources?_________

Have I anticipated objections to statements made and rebutted them?_________________

Have I discussed the strengths and weaknesses of opposing views or the "pros and cons" of the question at hand? ___________

C: Conclusion: (depending on the nature of your assignment)

Have I written a final paragraph(s) that summarized the question and main points that were made? ________

Have I mentioned how the issue was resolved or the result(s) of the question posed?

Helpsheet #3 – Proof Reading Your Essay

Before submitting your finished essay to the professor, check of your paper against this list of possible technical errors.

Technical Presentation:

I. Edit and Final Proof the Paper:

Have I:

_____Read the paper aloud to catch any grammatical errors?

_____Used a spell check and a grammar check?

_____Used a dictionary to check the meaning of words that I am unsure of or sound like other words?

_____Used a thesaurus to vary my vocabulary?

_____Eliminated any slang or colloquial expressions?

_____Used a tone appropriate for this academic writing assignment and eliminated slang expressions?

_____Used the past tense for this history assignment?

II. Have I formatted the paper properly and:

_____Given the essay a title and/or indicated which question I am answering?

_____Set the margins adequately and according to the directives?

_____Used a Times New Roman typeface or an equivalent?

_____Used a 10 or 12 font size?

_____Double spaced the text?

_____Indented paragraphs or used appropriate spacing?

13. Campus Resources + John Jay College of Criminal Justice

The Writing Center

Location: 2450 North Hall

  Phone: 212-237-8569
Campus Home Page

The ESL Resource Center

Location: 1201 North Hall

  Phone: 212-237-8231

The John Jay Library

The CUNY WriteSite

14. Internet Resources: History Web Sites

The following sites provide good primary history sources, and offer some background and leads to other sites:
Prof. Joe O'Brien's web site http://web.jjay.cuny.edu/~jobrien/index.html

(note: this is an excellent site, and also delves specifically into History 232 at John Jay)

Horus' Web Links to History Resources http://www.ucr.edu/h-gig

History Central Catalogue http://www.ukans.edu/history/VL/

World Civilization Reader http://www.humanities.ccny.cuny.edu/history/projects.htm

(compiled and edited by Profs. George Ouwendijk and Bill Rednour)

Internet History Sourcebooks (Paul Halsall) http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/

Writing the History Paper http://www.dartmouth.edu/~compose/student/soc_sciences/history.html

15. Writing Sites on the Web

(note: these are very good for grammar, spelling, and style checks)

CUNY Write Site http://writesite.cuny.edu/nsindex.html

Roget'sThesaurus online http://humanities.uchicago.edu/forms_unrest/ROGET.html

Merriam-Webster Dictionary http://www.m-w.com/dictionary.htm

APA Style

Writer's Web http://www.richmond.edu/~writing/wweb.html

The UVic Writer's http://webserver.maclab.comp.uvic.ca/writersguide/MasterTOC.html

Guide

University of Illinois Online http://www.english.uiuc.edu/cws/wworkshop/mainmenu.html

Writing Guide

Grammar & Style Notes http://andromeda.rutgers.edu/~jlynch/Writing/

Rensselaer Writing Center http://www.rpi.edu/dept/llc/writecenter/web/handouts.html

Further Reading

Benjamin, Jules R (1998). A Student's Guide to History. Boston: Bedford Books.

Campbell, W. G. (1954). Form and Style in Thesis Writing. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Ellis, B. L. (1971). How to Write Themes and Terms Papers. New York: Barron's Educational.

Gibaldi, J. and W.S. Achtert (1984). MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers.

New York: Modern Language Association.

Hacker, Diana (1999). A Pocket Style Manual. 3rd edition. Boston: Bedford Books.

Rampolla, Mary Lynn (1998). A Pocket Guide to Writing in History. 2nd edition. Boston: Bedford Books.

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