Summary of Alliances and Agreements, 1879-1907

• 1873:The Three Emperors League(Dreikaiserbund)
  GERMANY, AUSTRIA-HUNGARY and RUSSIA agree to maintain a peaceful status quo in Europe. A deeper motive of Bismarck's was to isolate France by preventing a Franco-Russian accord (Note that France and Russia were contiguous with Germany's borders). This unstable agreement broke down in 1878 when Russia went to war against Turkey in the Balkans and attempted to rearrange territory there in her favor. When renewed in 1881 as a secret treaty it provided for the benevolent neutrality of the other two if one of them was at war, with the exception of a war with Turkey. This treaty, therefore, would require the neutrality of Germany and Austria if Russia found herself at war with England,or the neutrality of the others if Germany was at war with France.The agreement finally broke down in 1885 because of further trouble in the Balkans, this time stemming from differences between Austria and Russia overpolitical matters in Bulgaria, and it was then allowed to lapse.

• 1879: The Dual Alliance
  This alliance joined together, for their common security, GERMANY and AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. Concluded after the breakdown of the Dreikaiserbund and the disruption in Russo-German relations caused by the diplomatic setback suffered by Russia at the Congress of Berlin in 1878, this was Bismarck's device to bind Austria to Germany in case either was attacked by Russia. It was a purely defensive treaty. It also committed each power to be benevolently neutral in case either was attacked by another power(i.e., France). If Russia joined with France in such an eventuality, however,both Austria and Germany would act together. The treaty was secret (though it soon became generally known and was revealed by Bismarck in 1888) and remained permanent via automatic renewal after 1902.

  The alliance is an example of Bismarck's desire (for German security) to prevent any Russian threat to its Germanic neighbor. Austria and Russia, both vitally interested in the affairs of the Balkans, had incompatible goals--the one, Austria, determined to support Turkey and absorb Serb territory; the other, Russia, to weaken Turkey and acquire a dominating influence in the Balkan region. The terms of the alliance were made public in 1888 when Austro-Russian tensions had again reached the danger point, thus putting Russia on notice that Germany would not stand idly by if Russia attacked Austria.

• 1881: --see 1873 above re renewal of the Dreikaiserbund

• 1882:The Triple Alliance
  This was really an extension of the 1879 Dual Alliance as ITALY joined GERMANY and AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. By the terms of the treaty the lattertwo powers (Germany and Austria) would aid Italy in case of an attack on herby France (Note that France had recently stolen a march on Italy by heroccupation of Tunisia, an African country Italy coveted for her own expansionist designs). In return Germany would receive Italian aid in case she were attacked by France, while Austria obtained Italian neutrality incase of war against Austria by others (i.e., Russia). But if one of the three were attacked by two other powers (i.e., Russia and France combined), then all three would unitedly make war. The treaty was renewable and, as usual,to be kept secret. Italy eventually opted out of the alliance upon the outbreakof war in 1914 on the grounds that Austria, by unilaterally acting against the Serbs, had violated the letter and spirit of the Triple Alliance.

• 1887: The Reinsurance Treaty
  This was Bismarck's attempt to reconcile RUSSIA with GERMANY after the breakdown of the Dreikaiserbund two years earlier. It also pointed up Bismarck's dilemma of remaining on good terms both with Austria and Russia at the one time. By the terms of this secret treaty (which was fundamentallyin conflict with the Dual Alliance) Germany and Russia each agreed to maintain benevolent neutrality in the event the other found itself at war with a third great power (i.e, Germany to remain neutral if Russia at war with Britain; Russia neutral if France attacked Germany). These terms did not apply, however, if Russia found herself at war with Austria (Note here the inviolability of the Dual Alliance) or Germany was the aggressor ina war against France. This was yet another instance of Bismarck's desireto preserve the peace of Europe since he had no intention of attacking France and now put Russia on notice that war by her against Austria would not prevent Germany from assisting her neighbor (This 'notice' was to be affirmed one year later as described above --see 1879). The Reinsurance treaty was allowed to lapse by the German government after Bismarck's fall from power in 1890.

• 1892-4: The Franco-Russian Alliance
  For several years the policy of Russia had been tending in the direction of agreement with France, a trend encouraged by French military assistance and by major loans to Russia by French banks. After all, Russia had been diplomatically isolated since the lapse of the Reinsurance treaty in 1890 while Britain was still considered a hostile power. Besides. the Triple Alliance of Germany. Austria-Hungary and Italy had been renewed. Negotiations between France and Russia were begun in 1892 and a military convention was soon concluded which finally received the tsar's signature in 1894. The alliance was, of course, secret but it became generally known in the following year.The dangerous implications were that Europe was now divided into two groups of opposing states, with each armed camp motivated by fear and suspicion of the other--the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy versusthe newly formed alliance of France and Russia.Under the terms of this alliance, Russia would come to the aid of France if she were attacked by Germany, or by Italy supported by Germany. Likewise, France would come to the aid of Russia if she were attacked by Germany, or by an Austria supported by Germany. In addition, mobilization by one or more members of the opposing Triple Alliance would entail immediate mobilization(i.e., readying the army for action) of both France and Russia "in such a manner as to oblige Germany to fight simultaneously in both east and west." The alliance was to have the same duration as the Triple alliance.

• 1902:The Anglo-Japanese Alliance
  At this time Britain was not on friendly terms with Russia, France or Germany . Indeed, she had growing apprehensions about an apparent increasing Russian influence in the Far East as well as about the very real French advances in West Africa and the developing naval strength of Germany.Moreover, Japan (already a developing imperial power in Asia since her defeatof China in 1895) had watched with anger the menace of Russian encroachments in northern China and her seizure of the warm water port of Port Arthur in1887 which seemed directed against Japan's influence in Korea. Thus both Japan and Britain found common interest in containing Russia. This was arather significant treaty for it demonstrated in a sense Britain's departure from her long held policy of "splendid isolation" from international treaty entanglements. Under terms of the treaty, Japan's dominant interest in Korea was recognized and Britain undertook to remain neutral if Japan found herself at war with Russia (as she was soon to be) and, additionally, would intervene on her behalf if a second power (i.e., France) were to come to Russia's aid.The treaty was to run for five years and was renewable.

• 1904:The Entente Cordiale
  This was not a formal alliance exacting fixed obligations from each, but rather a "friendly Agreement" between two former enemies BRITAIN and FRANCE to resolve their outstanding differences in Africa, North America(in Newfoundland) and Asia. The two main problems involved Egypt (Britain's sphere of interest) and Morocco, which France was seeking to bring under her control. Under the Agreement, Britain was to have a free hand in Egypt without French interference while France received a similar assurance as regards Morocco. There were attached secret articles that were not revealed until 1911 which implied that Morocco might be annexed by France (despite France's protestations in 1904 that she had no desire to alter the political status of that country) subject to part of the country being reserved to Spain.

• 1907:The Anglo-Russian Agreement
  This drawing together of mutually suspicious BRITAIN and RUSSIA stemmed from a number of considerations--a change in the Russian foreign ministry in the direction of matching the Triple Alliance with a Triple Entente by including Britain on the side of France and Russia; the Russian desire to resolve outstanding differences with Britain over Afghanistan,Persia and Tibet; the British desire to allay her fears of Russian encroachments on her Indian frontier. This publicly declared Agreement liquidated the long standing grievances existing between the two powersbut there was no accompanying military convention or promise of diplomatic support. Yet appearances served to lend support to the notion that the "ring"around Germany, whom they all feared, was now complete. Against the firmly established Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy (thoughthat didn't prove to be all that firm in 1914) there stood the equally firm Franco-Russian alliance, with Britain finally declaring her interest instanding with the latter powers against Germany. In the event, the so-calledTriple Entente proved the more durable in view of Italy's defection from the Triple Alliance at the crucial hour in 1914.