Assessment
(For a look at how colleges/universities are making students aware of the problem of rape on campus, click above to view one of the posters used on campuses to alert students to this problem)
To assess the problem of rape on our college campuses, much research has been conducted by academics, as well as criminal justice agencies to see how extensive the problem really is. The real initial interest in investigating came after Dr. Mary Koss's study (1985). This national study on college students' sexual experiences on campus, had a significant role in upgrading antirape activism on college campuses; became the basis for several other books and studies, and influenced the campus version of the Violence Against Women Act (Sanday, 1996,191). After that, many researchers began to examine the problem from different perspectives. Many have looked into the socialization of sex roles in today's society and its impact on the attitudes towards sexual violence; while some have looked at specifically men's roles on college campuses, primarily with respect to the role of athelete and the impact of fraternities on campus.
Special issues that have currently been placed in the forefront recently include the midwest campus serial rapist, and cases involving alcohol and drug use, and the 'date rape' drug of choice -- rohypnol, which has been under a significant amount of scrutiny by media and politicians calling for a nation-wide ban on this drug. Another concern is the alternative date rape drug...GHB.GHB is a white powder, also known as "liquid meth" or "cherry meth". This drug has been documented to cause tremors, seizures, even death, especially when mixed with alcohol and/or other drugs.
In 1985, the Association of American Colleges'Project on the Status and Education of Women reported it had found more than 75 incidents of reported gang rapes occurring on coleeges/universities, primarily at fraternity houses. This number represents only a small fraction of college gang rapes ocurring on campuses. "This behavior is far more common than anyone suspected."(Warshaw, 1988, 105). In 1992, colleges and universities reported over 1,000 rapes, and even this number is propbably lower than the actual number (Siegal, 1994,77).Alcohol is a significant contributing factor which will be examined in further detail. Its consumption is attributed in approximately 80% of sexual assault cases on campuses (Mulligan, March 1993).
The true statistics regarding acquaintance rape on college campuses are clouded with controversy. Many writings have focused on descriptive pieces, isolated cases, or small-scaled studies. Another reason revolves around the secrecy and shame of the crime. How many women women experience it, but never tell? Early studies from the 1960's indicated half of all rapes were committed by men who knew their victims (Amir,1971). In the 1970's, major research on date/acquaintance rape began to take shape. Susan Brownmiller's book Against Our Will(1975), first coined the term "date rape". In her work, she acknowledged the problem of collecting data and statistics, since this type of rape rarely makes it to the courts; and even if so, rarely results in a conviction. Even today, many academics refute Koss's findings and the statistics regarding the prevalance of rape on the college campus. For these commentaries seeChristina Hoff-Sommer's page and/or Kate Roiphe's for their views and interpretation of recent research (Sommers, Roiphe, 1996).
In the review of recent literature, significant research on campus sexual assault has focused on fraternity and male-athletic memberships. Much of this research (Koss, Oros, 1985; Sanday,1996)discuss that these influences support social control and conflict models regarding rape; and that sex-role socialization fosters rape-supportive beliefs and myths that are reinforced by power and control between men and women. These memberships only encourage male control. Furthermore, it has been suggested that culturally transmitted beliefs and assumptions about men, women, sex, and violence support this theory; and these stratified systems and/or groups (i.e. athletic teams, grrek cultures, dating situations, etc.) may legimate the use of coercion or force by those in "power". It is important to look at common "myths" regarding acquaintance rape and other influences on male sexual aggression, like alcohol and the impact of pornography in our culture.
A major theme associated with acquaintance rape on campus is the influence of alcohol and drugs. The Koss study (1987), indicated that few students reported sexual assault. It was noted in 1985 (Baker), that 90% of students sexually assaulted do not come forward due to the female student's participation at parties and alcohol/drug use. Some descriptive pieces have indicated women's confusion and guilt because of their behavior, prohibits them from reporting the crime. Men, as well, as many women, still see a woman's drinking as an invitation for sex. This is encouraged through alcohol advertisements in the media. This is a contributing reason why many are skeptical to defend a victim if it has occured in a setting where alcohol was consumed. Some theorists believe that many students become suspectible to this type of violence because of peer pressure, the new setting of the college campus, and lack of parental supervision. Many interpret parties as being "pathways to popularity" and the consumption of alcohol and drug experimentation is seen as "cool behavior"(Koss, Oros, 1987).
Research has been conducted identifying that the role pornography plays in objectifying women and perpetuating rape myths and sexual stereotypes is significant. Reasearch has linked violent pornography with serious violent sexual predators, like Ted Bundy (Sanday, 1990). However, some researchers concede that nonviolent pornography has negative consequences for men's behavior.(For more related information, see Andrea Dworkin's page, for this, as for other related feminist links).
"Viewers are left with the impression that women are insatiable sexually, and willing to have sex under a variety of demeaning conditions. Viewers of such pronography regard rape as less serious than non-viewers, and would impose shorter sentences in convictions...." (Gorton & Riger, 1991, 128).
Timonthy Beneke, in his book, Men on Rape (1982), took his examinization of pornography and rape one step further. He looked at the term "pornographizing", which is the process by which:
"..men relate to women, images of women, the visual presence of women, etc. One anoymizes the women and fails to acknowledge her morals, spirit, or emotional being. One relates to her as a thing without a soul. The woman as a locus of experience is denied". (Beneke, 1982, 24).
This type of image and perception of women is intensified by movies, media, and male socialization. Beneke suggests our culture endorses "rape signs" and "rape language". This includes terminology, words, and slang; song lyrics, novels, even within one's fantasy. (In fact there is even a Website under 'misogyny' that has a catalogue of all 'misogynist' songs & their lyrics).
"Not every man is a rapist, but every man who grows up in America and learns tha American English language learns all to much to think like a rapist, to structure his experience of women and sex in terms of status, hostility, control, and dominance"(Beneke, 1982, 16).
The existence of "rape signs" are saturated in our culture and effect how men interpret rape."Just as rape signs make it difficult to think clearly about rape, men's fantasies of rape make it diffcult for men to think of the true reality of rape"(Beneke, 1982, 10).
For more information on the issue of rape and pornography, see the Academics Dialogue of Applied Ethics.
Peggy Reeves Sanday's (1990) anthropological case study Fraternity Gang Rape, drew gave insight into the subculture of the Greek lifestyle. According to Sanday, the Greek system is the best example of a tribal subculture due to their rituals and traditions. The frequency of sexual assault and other examples of violence against women is higher when female power and authority are low. This situation exists within the fraternal/sororal lifestyle. This book is a case study of a number of fraternities at the University of Pennsylvania. Sanday is certainly the expert on the anthropology of rape, and has consucted several comparative studies investigating what sort of society or social structure is likely to find rape acceptable.
The Greek system provides a good medium for this type of behavior. Much victimization occurs during the "hazing" or "rushing" period (Sanday, 1990, 135). This process is a sort of symbolic sacrifice of the self to deal a covenant between the pledge and the Greek organization. There has been much research speculation regarding the male bonding habits of Greeks and the relationship between that and female objectification.
There have been several small scale studies conducted on the Greek lifestyle and its impact on the college campus. Another area under the watchful eyes of reseachers is athletics. In light of the case, Brzonkola v. Virginia Tech, No. 96-1418, which is currently pending before the U.S. Court of Appeals, was the first case brought under the 1994 Violence Against Women Act. After little action was taken by campus officials, after her alleged rape by two members of the football team, Christina Brzonkola took Virginia Tech to court and sued for 8 million dollars (The amount the school would receive from participating in the Sugar Bowl for that year).This case may ultimately test recent enacted legislation.
However, one major problem faced by researchers and policy makers has been the accurracy of campus crime reports. Colleges/universities have been suspected of underreporting crimes so as not to scare off propspective students. This has had an impact withg regard to scholarly interpretations of data and relevant research.
There have been some successful studies. Cooperhaver & Grauerholz (1991) studied sexual victimization of soroity women. Their investigation indicated that almost half of the subjects studies experienced some form of sexual coercion. Twenty-four percent experienced attempted rape, and 17% were victims of rape. Half (50%) of the rapes occurred at a fraternity house - when there was a fraternity function taking place or the act was committed by a frat member. The study provided evidence that the social environment of fraternities encourages sexual coercion of women, particularly sororal women (Copenhaver & Grauerholz, 1993,31).
Koss & Gaines (1993) examined the prediction of sexual aggression by athletic particiaption, fraternity affiliation and alcohol use. Though their study did not have much significant diiference between them and regular college students. The statistic should be viewed with caution.
There still needs to be a significant amount of more research done on this topic - not only to further our education about the crime and nature of rape in our society and on our campuses, but to evaluate legislation and policies that have already been put in place.
